What is Science 3
Induction and Abduction in Western Science
Abduction is relevant to western science
as it is the method that is used in arriving at “axioms” that explain
generalized observations through induction.
We may call it the scientific method if such description is needed.
However, in western science, there are two stages. In the first stage
observations and induction take place in that order, and in the second stage
abduction and observations take place in that order. Having said that it has to
be emphasized that in the first stage the observations are dependent on theory
or one’s beliefs, and that the observations could have been proceeded by
thoughts. There are neither observations independent of conceptions, nor
perceptions without conceptions, and the idea of perceptions without
conceptions stem again from the dualities in western Chinthanaya.
In western science it is said that the
observations are important, but in Cosmology and modern Theoretical Physics the
ideas are considered to be supreme. The symmetry of theories, Mathematical
consistency and beauty whatever it means, have become very important. It is as
if the Universes or Multiverses have been created Mathematically, and one may
be inclined to think that God is a Mathematician, assuming that God exists.
Western science is very much concerned
with observations but observations of multiverse is beyond the capacity of the
scientists. It is only an idea, and Mathematics is all about ideas arrived at
by induction or by construction. Axioms in Euclidean Geometry have been arrived
at by induction, while those of Non- Euclidean Geometry are constructions. What
I mean by Mathematics, is what is sometimes known as Pure Mathematics,
excluding anything that goes as Applied Mathematics. However, this does not mean that ideas exist
independent of observations, when sensory perceptible conceptions are
considered.
In the second stage, we said that
abductions and observations take place in that order. The guesses are made to
explain the generalized observations from the first stage, and having made
guesses or “axioms” observations are usually carried out in order to arrive at
an “axiom” that works. The word ‘usually’ has been used as it is not the case
with multiverses and string theory.
In western science
induction is called into play in generalizing from a limited number of
observations of a property of a sample(s) to the entire population very often
infinite in numbers. These are usually abstract inductions. A good example is
the falling of objects to the earth.
Newton would have
observed some apples falling when released from the trees. What he did was to
generalize this experience to all objects (not merely apples) near the earth,
and to make the generalized statement that all objects near the earth fall to
the earth when released. That was abstract induction, and the population was
the objects near the earth. Then of
course he had the problem of the moon that did not fall.
This is the first
stage of western science. The population is identified, samples are considered,
some property of the sample(s) is observed, and the property is generalized to
the entire population, very often of infinite number of members. With respect
to populations with infinite number of members we are dealing with
abstractions.
As can be seen in
induction it is assumed that the relevant property is common to the entire
population. As has been said induction belongs to rationalism in western
Philosophy. In western science it is assumed that with respect to a certain
property the entire population behaves the same way. This is nothing but another “axiom”.
In the second
state scientists attempt to give an “explanation” of the generalized abstract
observation. This is where abduction comes in. Abduction is guessing and
nothing else. It belongs to rationalism in western Philosophy and by abduction
scientists arrive at “axioms”. In guessing it is assumed again that the “axiom”
applies to the entire population.
Why do the objects
near the earth fall to the earth? Newton had an answer to the question. Others
might have given different answers to the question, which did not work. Finally,
it was Newton’s guess on gravitation that worked.
However, it did
not work for the entire population. The moon does not fall. Newton could have
excluded the moon from the population by taking the moon not to be near enough
to the earth. However, he did not do that, as he wanted his guess to be
universal, and gave an explanation as to why the moon does not fall to the
earth. It was with his laws of motion and by considering circular motion.
Newton’s guess could
be considered as an abstract generalization valid for any two objects in the
universe. However, it has to be mentioned that Newton did not explain how this
force operates, and it was nothing but spooky action at a distance, if we use a
later expression by Einstein with respect to Quantum Mechanics.
Abductions are
guesses, and the scientists go on guessing until they come across a guess that
works. However, these guesses are culture dependent, and abstract. Very often,
it is those scientists in cultures that help abstract thinking who come out
with successful abstract guesses. The guesses are made in a certain paradigm in
Thomas Kuhn’s sense, and when a guess cannot be made in the existing paradigm,
the scientist has to make a guess with respect to the paradigm as well.
Paradigms are also guessed and guessing of a new paradigm is considered as
revolutionary science by Kuhn.
A paradigm
prescribes the Game Rules that have to be adhered to in making guesses of
“axioms”. A change of paradigm or paradigm shift is a change of the Game Rules.
In the Newtonian paradigm all velocities were relative to the so-called
inertial frames, but in Einsteinian paradigm this rule was changed, and the
velocity of light remained constant in all so-called inertial frames of
reference.
“Axioms” and
paradigms are guessed in a culture. Both Newtonian paradigm and the Einsteinian
paradigms were created in western Judaic Christian culture, while Quantum
Mechanics was created outside Judaic Christian culture with its Aristotelian
Logic. Bohr who was a pioneer in creating Quantum Mechanics was influenced by Ying
-Yang idea in Chinese culture.
Any guess is
subject to correction, and would not hold for the entire population for all
situations. Guesses, and hence “axioms” which are sometimes called theories,
are valid only for limited cases. It can be said that the guesses work only for
a limited number of cases, approximately, and one should expect them to fail in
some cases. This is somewhat similar to Popper’s falsification, and guesses or
“axioms” or theories are subject to falsification, after particularization as
explained below. The guesses are never right but only “work” under certain
circumstances. However, an “axiom” is not thrown away, simply because one of
its particularization does not work. It is used wherever it works, leaving
aside the case when it does not work. The theory of gravitation due to Newton
was not thrown away just because its particularization with respect to the
orbits of the planets around the sun did not work. It is still used wherever it
works.
This is based on
pragmatism, and abduction is based on pragmatism as a Philosophy. It does not
come as a surprise to note that abduction was introduced in US that follows a
pragmatic philosophy. Quantum Mechanics, though not “understood” by western
scientists within their culture continues to be used for its pragmatic features
in western science mainly because US is the dominant force in science today.
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